Unit 1: The Old Regime. The Bourbons in Spain in the 18th century
The English are the only people on earth who have been able to prescribe limits to the power of kings by resisting them, and who, by a series of struggles, have at length established that wise and happy form of government where the prince is all–powerful to do good, and at the same time is restrained from committing evil.
Voltaire, Philosophical letters.
1) Old Regime and Enlightenment
2) The new international relations
5) The 18th century in Spain. The arrival of the Bourbons
6) Bourbon reformism in the 18th century in Spain
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1) Old Regime and Enlightenment.
1.1) Old Regime:
Between the 15th and 18th centuries, European society was dominated by privileged groups (asbolute monarchy, nobility and clergy) who imposed their will on the rest (third estate). In addition, agriculture was practically the only source of wealth in the economy, and it was based on the production extracted from large estates that were owned by the privileged classes. These lands were worked by peasants who lived in poor conditions. The scarce trade that existed was reduced to the small artisan trade and the sale in organized markets in the city square.
The demography followed an 'old model', with a very high birth rate and mortality. Wars, epidemics, and famine impeded natural population growth.
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1.2) The Enlightenment
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It was a way of thinking that was born from a series of philosophers who questioned the concepts of the Old Regime: instead of blind faith and superstition, they relied on reason to achieve progress and happiness; instead of birth privileges, meritocracy; instead of fanaticism, tolerance; instead of ignorance, education for all and scientific method.
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Some kings were also imbued with the spirit of the Enlightenment and wanted to make reforms so that their subjects had better living conditions and were happier. Thus, they introduced educational reforms (schools, universities, observatories), hygiene and health (hospitals, sewerage) promoting agriculture and industry. However, these kings were unwilling to give up an inch of their absolute power. Historiography has coined a phrase that defines this situation very well: tout pour le peuple rien par le peuple ("Everything for the people, nothing by the people"). The most famous kings of the Enlightenment were Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine II of Russia or Carlos III of Spain.
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1.3) The expansion of enlightened thinking.
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Some of the upper bourgeoisie and lower nobility were intellectually highly educated. They were fond of illustrated ideas and passionately discussed them in elegant French salons. The most relevant of these intellectuals were:
Montesquieu, who developed the division of powers (legislative, executive and judicial)
Rousseau, who developed the concepts of national sovereignty and social contract.
Voltaire, who advocated tolerance and against fanaticism, especially in the religious field.
Diderot and D'Alembert, openly atheistic thinkers, who advocated the scientific and experimental method as a source of knowledge and fought superstition. Their masterpiece is the Encyclopedia, where they wanted to collect all the knowledge of their time.
In general, these intellectuals were not favorable to absolute monarchy and claimed the people should hold political rights and participate though representatives in the common good.
Millet: Gleaners (1857)
2) The new international relations.
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During the Ancien Régime, various European powers fought for supremacy in Europe. The power that Spain had with its American possessions and its places in Europe wanted to be counteracted by the French, English and Dutch, which meant continuous wars in the 16th and 17th centuries. In the 18th century, after the War of the Spanish Succession, Spain lost predominance in Europe in favor of England, as we will see later.
In addition, Europe went through serious crises, such as the economic one caused by bad harvests caused by the cold (Little Ice Age), the resulting inflation, hunger, disease and war.
On the other hand, it was the century in which England came out of the Old Regime (Glorious Revolution of 1688) and the great scientific revolution continued developing.
3) Economic changes I
3.1) Economic doctrines of the Old Regime and the Enlightenment.
During the Old Regime, most countries, in constant military and commercial wars, adopted mercantilism. According to this theory, the wealth of a country is measured in the amount of precious metals it has, so it was interesting to export a lot and import little, and avoid the exit of these precious metals. It was also interesting to trade with the colonies themselves. It was, of course, a defensive economy for a world at war.
Already in the 18th century, with the arrival of the Enlightenment and the relative peace in Europe, economic doctrines tended to freedom of movement:
On the one hand, the Physiocracy, which proposed that the states not intervene in the economy to favor freedom of trade and the flow of capital, and maintained that the main source of wealth in a country is agriculture, because it provides food, which is what is essential for other economic areas to progress, such as commerce. Its greatest exponents were François de Quesnay and Vincent de Gournay, who expressed the ideal of the free market in a phrase that has remained for posterity: 'Laissez faire, laissez passer. Le monde va de lui même' (Let it do, let it pass. The world goes by itself).
Later, the economic liberalism of Adam Smith developed the idea of ​​the Physiocrats adapted to a world that was ceasing to be fundamentally agricultural and was beginning to industrialize. This Scottish thinker, in his work The Wealth of Nations, expresses his desire that the economy be governed only by the laws of supply and demand, and that the state only intervene to guarantee freedom and property, the defense of the country, justice and public works. This theory was enormously influential and still is today.
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3.2) Demographic increase
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In the 18th century the population grew dramatically. The main reason is the control of epidemics, but increased food production and the absence of wars also contributed to population growth.
4) Economic changes II
4.1) Changes in agriculture:
One thing must be made clear: the base of the economy of the Old Regime was agriculture and, in the 18th century, it will continue to be agriculture, but there are a series of changes that affect the production process:
-Increase of arable land. This is a factor that is fed back with the demographic increase. The price of land increases.
-Diversification of crops. New products from America are grown in Europe: banana, potato, corn, tomato, avocado, chocolate, etc.
-Enclosures in England. It is the end of the communal lands. The rural bourgeoisie buys more and more land. Here you can see the influence of physiocratic theories.
-Agricultural Revolution in England: the money that is extracted from the colonial trade is invested in improving the infrastructures and new inventions appear, such as the Jethro Tull seed drill.
4.2) Appearance of the first industries:
In the countryside the doméstic system or putting-out system appears. It is a small step towards industrial production.
In cities there are more and more artisan and industrial activities and greater freedom of work and commerce. The monopoly of the guilds is coming to an end. The growth of cities is unstoppable. Governments encourage industrial growth through real factories. In Spain there were several. Currently, the Royal Tapestry Factory continues to operate.
4.3) Changes in trade. Colonial trade.
As the volume of trade increased, governments built better roads, canals, and ports. This helped to make commercial traffic more fluid.
Colonial trade continued to develop, with the entry of new countries into it (England) and the appearance of new maritime routes. Very beneficial was the famous triangular route, which went from Europe to Africa, then to America and finally back to Europe. The shipment comprised, above all, processed products, slaves, and raw materials.
Seed drill of Jethro Tull. Drawn by a horse, it was capable of sowing three furrows at a time, distributing the seeds regularly. This improved the distribution of the plants and the space and light that they would have when they grew. It meant a much greater optimization of space and time in the field.
Domestic system: A merchant brings cotton (or other material) to the peasants, who will weave clothes. Then, the merchant takes the finished cloth, pays the weavers and sells the clothes in the market. This precapitalism concept contributed to put an end to the monopoly of the guilds.
Trading routes in the mid-eighteenth century. We can see the triangular route on green
5) The 18th century in Spain.
The arrival of the Bourbons.
5.1) The establishment of the Bourbons.
The seventeenth century ends and Carlos II of Habsburg, king of Spain, dies without issue. Shortly before, he has ceded the inheritance rights to Felipe de Borbón, Duke of Anjou and grandson of Louis XIV of France, the Sun King. In this way, the same dynasty would reign in the two neighboring countries.
This agreement did not please the rest of the European powers who believed that the European balance would be at risk if the same family controlled territories as large as Spain, France and all their respective colonies. Furthermore, Archduke Charles of Austria, a Habsburg, officially claimed the throne of Spain, thinking that he had greater inheritance rights than the Duke of Anjou. This tension led to war: On one side, France and Spain, and on the other Austria with its aspirant Charles, and its allies the Netherlands and England.
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5.2) The War of Succession (1700-1714)
It was a long and painful war that, in addition to being European, was civil, since the Crown of Aragon allied itself with Archduke Charles, who had promised to respect its privileges and particular laws of the kingdom.
The war continued without a clear winner until 1711 when Archduke Charles inherited the crown of the Holy Roman Empire, and this fact puts his allies on guard: if in addition to this crown, Charles gets the throne of Spain, it will be also a threat to the European balance. At that time, England and the Netherlands decide to seek a negotiated solution.
In 1713 the Treaty of Utrecht was signed and in 1714, that of Rasttat. By these treaties, Felipe de Anjou was allowed to reign in Spain (with the name of Felipe V), but the price was very expensive: Spain lost all its possessions in Europe (Sardinia, Milan, Naples and the Spanish Netherlands were to Austria and Menorca and Gibraltar to English hands. In addition, England got very good commercial agreements: The Permit Ship (Navío de Permiso), which was a 500-ton ship that could go once a year to sell products in the Spanish colonies of America, and the Asitento de Negros, whereby England could sell African slaves in the Spanish colonies.
Within Spain, the new King Felipe V considered that the Crown of Aragon had committed treason by allying itself with Archduke Charles and applied an iron centralist policy with the promulgation of the Nueva Planta Decrees. Felipe V is the absolute king of Spain.
Felipe V is crowned King of Spain in the Palace of Veralles.
Europe before and after the War of Succession. You can see the territories lost by the Hispanic Monarchy
Covers of the Utrecht Treaty in Spanish and English.
Cover of the Asiento de Negros, agreement between Spain and England about the slave trade in America
6) Bourbon reformism in 18th century Spain.
6.1) Domestic policy
Felipe V initiated a centralist policy in the French style, partly due to the accession of the Crown of Aragon to the side of Archduke Charles. He started the secretaries, which functioned as ministries. There were five secretaries:
-State
-Grace and Justice
-Tax authorities
-War
-Marine and Indies
His monarchy, like that of his grandfather in France, was absolute and concentrated all powers in his person.
Part of the centralization process were the famous Nueva Planta Decrees (1707, 1715, 1716) by which it unified the peninsular kingdoms under the laws of Castile. This was especially hard in Catalonia, Mallorca and Valencia, where they had their own hundred-year-old laws that were eliminated. However, Vascongadas and Navarra were able to keep their own traditional laws ('fueros') since they had helped Felipe V during the War of Succession.
Throughout the 18th century the following Bourbon monarchs reigned:
1- Felipe V (1700-1724 and 1724-1746)
2- Louis I (1724)
3- Ferdinand VI (1746-1759)
4- Carlos III (1759-1788)
5- Carlos IV (1788-1808)
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6.1.1) Economic reforms
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As the century progresses, enlightened ideas prevail, especially with the arrival of Carlos III to the throne. New theories, such as mercantilism, the incipient capitalism or mass production are making their way little by little. Those in charge of implementing these new ideas are the Economic Societies of Friends of the Country. In Madrid, the Royal Matritense Economic Society of Friends of the Country still exists.
-Agriculture: new crops from America are introduced, such as corn and potatoes. Fertilizers are being used.
-Industry: the ideas of the industrial revolution were slow to settle, as the economy was primarily agricultural. However, the monarchy set up the Royal Factories, supported with government funds and which manufactured luxury products (ceramics, tapestries, glass objects) to prevent their exportation. In Madrid, the Royal Factory of Tapestries still exists.
-Domestic economy: commerce experienced a strong advance thanks to the improvement in roads and other means of communication, such as canals. In addition, Carlos III suspended the monopoly of trade between Spain and America that the Casa de Contratación de Indias in Seville had, making it possible for other ports in Spain to trade with America as well.
Decree of Nueva Planta for the Principality of Catalonia, 1716. Felipe V considered that the kingdoms of Aragon (which included Catalonia) and Valencia (which included the Balearic Islands) had committed treason by allying with Archduke Carlos of Austria and promulgated these decrees, for which are eliminated the laws and institutions of Aragon and Valencia and become governed by the same laws as Castile.
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A good example of the theatricality of absolute monarchies: The Family of Philip V, by Louis-Michel van Loo, represents the monarch surrounded by his family and the luxury and exaggerated baroque ornament.
6.2) The foreign policy of the Bourbons.
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The alliance with France was a fact. The Spanish ambassador in Paris went so far as to say that "the Pyrenees have disappeared." In the wars of the 18th century, Spain and France will be on the same side thanks to the Family Pacts.
Felipe V, dissatisfied with the Treaty of Utrecht, wanted to recover some of the European possessions lost by Spain and, taking advantage of the war of Polish succession, in which several countries participated, signed the First Family Pact (1733) and entered the war next to France. As a consequence, he recovered Naples and Sicily, where he placed his son Carlos (future Carlos III of Spain) as king.
In 1743 a Second Family Pact is signed to attack England, but Philip V dies three years later and his heir, Fernando VI, wants to carry out a more neutral policy, undoes the Second Family Pact and, in exchange, England suppresses the Asiento de Negros and the Vessel of Permission.
The next Bourbon, Carlos III, who had reigned in Naples and Sicily for more than twenty years, returns to aggressive politics: he enters, without much sense, in the Seven Years' War after signing the Third Family Pact (1761) against England, as always. This war is a disaster for Spain, which loses the important commercial colony of Florida, but is offset by French Louisiana. In 1776, France and Spain decided to help the Thirteen Colonies in their war of independence against England. This time, luck is favorable to Spain, which receives back Florida and Menorca.
Carlos IV, son of Carlos III, saw how the French Revolution broke out shortly after ascending the throne and decided to cut all relations with the neighboring country. He joined other European countries to fight the new French Republic, but was defeated and had no choice but to become an ally of Revolutionary France.
Carlos III
Felipe V
Fernando VI
Carlos IV
7. Art
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7.1) Rococo
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During the 18th century, baroque art gave way to an exaggerated and decadent version of it. Rococo is characterized by excess and a gratuitous taste for ornament, gold tones, curved lines, and luxury.
If the baroque was theatrical, the rococo is even more so: trompe l'oeil, natural environments or spectacular interiors, themes that represent imposture, flirtation, the game of appearances, etc.
In painting, the trompe l'oeils of Andrea Pozzo, the affected themes of Jean-Honoré Fragonard, or the delicacy of François Boucher stand out.
In sculpture, the floating sculptures of Egid Quirin Asam or the combination of sculpture and architecture of Narciso Tomé with the transparent of the Cathedral of Toledo stand out.
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Andrea Pozzo: trompe l'oeil in the vault of the Jesuit Church in Vienna
François Boucher: Diana leaving the bath
Egid Quirin Asam: Assumption of the Virgin, Braunau in Rohr Abbey, Germany
Jean-Honoré Fragonard: The swing
Narciso Tomé: Transparent of Toledo's Cathedral
7.2) Neoclassicism
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The Enlightenment movement, in the field of art, reacted against the excesses and superficiality of the Rococo. It imposed a return to Greco-Roman models, all based on good taste and rationalism, with little room for fantasy.
In architecture, the pure form is sought, in the Greco-Roman style, clarity of line is the law. Some examples are: the Madeleine church in Paris; the Puerta de Alcalá, in Madrid; the Brandenburg Gate, in Berlin, etc.
In sculpture, the influence of Antiquity is also appreciated, as in the works of Antonio Canova, of contained passion and that try to avoid shadows and nooks and crannies.
In painting, the best representative is Jacques-Louis David, with extraordinary drawing and brilliant colors on classical architectural backgrounds.
Carl Gotthard Langhans: Branderburg gate , Berlin
Madeleine church, Paris
Francesco Sabatini: Puerta de Alcalá
Antonio Canova: Venus Victrix
