Unit 6: The Iberian Peninsula between the 11th and the 15th century
1. Political and territorial
decline of Al-Andalus
1.1. First Taifa Kingdoms (1031-1085)
In unit 4 we ended up learning how Al-Andalus suffered a civil war (fitna) and broke up into small independent kingdoms (taifa kingdoms). This occurs in 1031.
There were three types of taifa kingdoms:
-Andalusis (the most important: Cordoba, Seville, Badajoz, Toledo, Zaragoza ...)
-Slavs: In the center-east of the Peninsula.
-Berbers: in the southern area, such as the taifa of Malaga.
These kingdoms live in a very unstable situation: they fight and conquer each other continuously. The Christian kingdoms took advantage of this situation and are gaining ground and forcing the Taifas to pay taxes (parias) in exchange for not being conquered.
1.2) Christian conquest of Toledo and arrival of the Almoravids.
In 1086, King Alfonso VI of León conquered Toledo. This city was one of the most important for Muslims and its loss was a real shock. So, the Taifa kings decided to ask for help from another Muslim kingdom that controlled North Africa: the Almoravids.
They were a Berber people with capital in Marrakech. In the Iberian Peninsula they created a military state with a strong religious component and managed, after several battles, to unify all the Taifa Kingdoms under their control around 1090. But even so, the war against the Christians intensifies and the Almoravid territory is divided again : The Second Kingdoms of Taifa appear in 1143.
1st Taifa Kingdoms circa 1031
Almoravid domination ca. 1090
1.3) End of the Second Kingdoms Taifa and Almohad domain. (1143-1212)
The new Taifa Kingdoms had the same flaw as the previous ones: divided they were weak and fought each other continuously. The Christians, meanwhile, continued to win battles.
In 1170, another North African kingdom that had superseded the Almoravids, enters the Peninsula. They are the Almohads.
These people manage to unite the Taifa again, and even conquer some Christian territories. In 1195 they defeat the Castilian king Alfonso VIII (Battle of Alarcos), and this sets off alarms among Christians.
The Castilian king, the Aragonese one (Pedro II) and the Navarrese one (Sancho VII) decide to unite against the Almohads. Neither the kingdom of León, facing Castile, nor that of Portugal, which had already completed its particular reconquest, participated in this pact.
The union of Christian kingdoms works well, and in 1212 they finally beat the Almohads in the battle of Navas de Tolosa, one of the most important in the Reconquest. From this moment on, the presence of Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula will be less and less.
Francisco de Paula van Halen: Battle of Navas de Tolosa.
2nd Taifa Kingdoms
Battle of Navas de Tolosa, 1212
1.4) Third Taifa Kingdoms, Nasrid Kingdom of Granada and end of the Reconquest.
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Defeated the Almohads after the battle of Navas de Tolosa (1212), the Muslim territory is divided again (Third Taifa Kingdoms) but its power is minimal. Some Taifa submit to the Christian kingdoms and pay them taxes (parias) in exchange for not being conquered. Until 1238, the Taifa of Seville was the most important, but that year Granada separated from it. The Nasrid kingdom of Granada will ultimately be the last focus of the Muslim presence.
There will still be another North African tribe that tries to invade the Peninsula, the Benimerines, but they are defeated by Alfonso XI, King of Castile, in 1340.
Granada becomes a vassal kingdom of Castile, and has to pay high taxes. This situation continues for more than 200 years. On the border there are some battles and skirmishes, but Castilla does not invade Granada, as it is in the middle of a civil war and Granada's parias are very useful. Finally, the Catholic Monarchs, Isabel and Fernando, managed to unite, in 1469, under the same monarchy, the two great peninsular Christian kingdoms: Castile and Aragon. Meanwhile, in Granada, there is a civil war. The Catholic Monarchs seize the occasion and enter Granada by arms in 1484. In 1492, Granada surrendered and the Reconquest was completed.
The surrender of Granada
3rd Taifa kingdoms
Nasrid kingdom of Granada. 13th to 15th centuries
Christian Kingdoms after the Reconquest
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1.5) Art in Al-Andalus in the 11th - 13th centuries.
Despite the fact that the Taifa Kingdoms were always at war with each other or against the Christian Kingdoms, art, especially architecture, continued to develop.
During the First Taifa Kingdoms, being a time of war, numerous castles and alcazabas were built. Many of them were destroyed, but part of the alcazabas in Malaga, Granada or Almería are still preserved. The most important taifa monument is the Palacio de la Aljafería, in Zaragoza, which was one of the most powerful taifa. In it we observe a very refined architecture, with lobed, mixilinear and intersecting arches.
From the Almoravid period we have been left with the Castle of Monteagudo, in Murcia, a magnificent example of fortification on top of a hill.
From the Almohad period we have the Seville Giralda, which was the minaret of the mosque and is inspired by the Koutubia tower in Marrakech, Morocco, also Almohad. In it we can appreciate the typical decoration of 'Sebka Cloths' of this type of buildings: It is as if the tower was covered by a cloth with embroidered decorations. Also in Seville we can see the 'Torre del Oro', a polygonal defensive building on the banks of the Guadalquivir that was part of the city wall.
Alcazaba of Almeria, 11th century
Palace of Aljaferia, Zaragoza. Lobbed arches. 11th c.
Palace of Aljaferia, lobbed arches. 11th century
Monteagudo castle, Region of Murcia. 11th century
Palace of Aljaferia, mixtilinear arch. 11th century
Left: Koutubia Tower, Marrakech, Morocco. 12th century.
It's the minaret of the mosque and was built by the Almohads.
Right: Giralda Tower, Sevilla. 12th century.
Built a little later by the Almohads, too. Influenced by the former, it is remarkable the use of the technique known as 'Sebka Cloths'.
Torre del Oro, Seville. 13th century
2) The advancement of the Christian kingdoms.
Between the 11th and 13th centuries, Castile and Aragon consolidated as the most powerful kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula and conquered lands from the Muslims. Navarra, wedged between Castile and Aragon and harassed by them, could not expand into the Muslim territory, and ended up establishing relations with France, so, at the end of the 13th century, the heirs of both crowns will marry and the kings of France will also be kings of Navarra.
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Castile:
In the 13th century, Fernando III became the first king of Castile y León unified, since his parents had been a Leonese king and a Castilian queen. Castile is now a great and powerful kingdom. Fernando III took advantage of the division between the Muslims after the defeat in Navas de Tolosa (1212) to conquer Córdoba, Jaén and Seville. His son Alfonso X (nicknamed 'the Wise') conquered Cádiz and Murcia. The Muslims were reduced to the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada.
Aragon:
The Aragonese Reconquest was much slower than the Castilian one. While the Castilians had reached Andalusia and the Atlantic through Cádiz, the Aragonese were still stack in the north. In the middle of the 12th century, Queen Petronila de Aragón married Ramón Berenguer IV, count of Barcelona. With this marriage, Aragon and the Catalan Counties were united, forming the Crown of Aragon. This favored the expansion and conquest of land for the Muslims. Already in the 13th century, Jaime I conquered Valencia and Mallorca. After this, Aragon could not expand further in the Iberian Peninsula, since he had reached the border with Castile, with whom he agreed not to attack (Treaty of Almizra, 1244). From this moment, Aragon expanded through the Mediterranean, as it had no other way out if it wanted to become a great kingdom, and in 1282 conquered Sicily.
Navarra:
Surrounded by Castilla and Aragón and without the possibility of expanding, it was attacked by these other kingdoms. Eventually it joined Aragon, but this union was unsuccessful. Finally it decided to establish relations with France, marrying their respective princes. At the end of the 13th century, Felipe IV was crowned king of France and Navarra.
Portugal:
In the middle of the 13th century, King Alfonso III conquered the Alentejo and Algarve regions, to the southwest, being constituted as an independent kingdom.
Conquest of Cordoba by Fernando III in 1236
Union of Aragon and the Catalan Counties in 1150: origin of the Crown of Aragon
Expansion of the Crown of Aragon by the Mediterranean sea. 13th to 15th centuries
The Portuguese Reconquest
3) Government and administration of Christian territories
We are already at the end of the Middle Ages, and, in theory, kings have gained a lot of power at the expense of the nobility, but in practice kings still find obstacles to their power.
Furthermore, the situation was different according to the kingdom. In Castile, the monarchy was centralized. The king was the one who supposedly held all the power, which had been transferred to him by God himself. In the Crown of Aragon the monarchy was federal: there were four kingdoms (Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia and Majorca) and each had its own laws, institutions and customs. The king of the Crown of Aragon had to be accepted by the four kingdoms and swear their laws.
At the end of the 12th century, as we learned in the previous unit, the cities bourgeoisie entered politics and its representatives began to rub shoulders with the members of the Curia Regis. From this moment, the representatives of nobility, clergy and citizens will meet in a parliament that in Spain is known as 'Cortes'. The first parliament in Europe was, in fact, that of Castile (Cortes de León, 1188)
In Castile, the Cortes can make a few decisions, but in Aragon each kingdom has its Cortes and these have much more decision-making power: the king cannot enact laws without the prior approval of the Cortes.
As the Cortes had more power, the Curia Regis was losing it. Finally, this was replaced by the Councils, formed by representatives of towns and cities.
The administration of the territory:
During feudalism kings gave land to the nobles in exchange for military aid. This caused the land to be divided into a multitude of different owners, and although the king wanted to impose his authority, it was not easy.
The lands in which the king ruled were called realengo, and in which a noble ruled, señorío.
4) Repopulation
In unit 4 we learned that, in the first reconquered area, that of the north of the peninsula up to the Douro Valley, a type of repopulation called pressura was carried out. I hope you remember.
Now we are going to see how the rest of the Peninsula was repopulated.
Council repopulation: In the area that encompasses the Tagus and Ebro valleys, a type of repopulation prevailed in which each town and each council issued an official document to those who wanted to settle there. For this document, they received medium-sized land to cultivate. In exchange, they had to work them and defend the town in case of war. Those documents were called fueros or 'cartas puebla'.
Repopulation by military orders:
In the area of ​​the Júcar, Turia and Guadiana valleys, the lands were handed over to military orders (warrior monks) who had participated in the reconquest wars. These orders (Calatrava, Santiago, Montesa and Alcántara) received large lots of land called Maestrazgos. In return they also promised to defend them in the event of an attack.
Repopulation by repartimiento: In the Guadalquivir valley, Murcia and the Balearic Islands, the land was distributed among the nobles who had participated in the reconquest wars. The high nobility received large estates called donadíos. The low nobility received not so extensive parcels called heredamientos.
Some Muslims stayed to live in the Christian territories. If they kept their faith they were called Mudejars, if they converted to Christianity they were called Moriscos. Many Muslims fled to Granada, which was still an Islamic area.
Example of carta pueba given by the king Alfonso I of Aragon to the mozarabic settlers.
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“Yo Alfonso concedo esta carta a vosotros cristianos mozárabes, a los cuales yo saqué con el auxilio divino, del poder de los sarracenos y conduje a tierras cristianas. Me complace porque abandonasteis vuestras casas y vuestras heredades y vinisteis a poblar mis tierras, concederos buenos fueros en toda mi tierra, que seáis libres y francos vosotros y vuestros hijos, en todo cuanto podáis poblar y trabajar en las villas y términos que yo os daré. Vosotros mozárabes no daréis lezda en todas mis tierras en los mercados que hagáis, ni haréis hueste ni cabalgada y tendréis todos vuestros juicios en vuestra puerta. Andaréis libres y seguros por toda mi tierra sin que nadie os haga daño, pero si alguien os agravia pagará multa de mil maravedís…” Año 1126
Spanish military orders
Levanta, Pascual! Spanish Reconquest song from the 16th century
5) Economy
Agriculture: Although it lost weight with respect to livestock, it continued to provide work for many people. The most common crops are those of the well-known Mediterranean trilogy: wheat, olive and vine.
Livestock: It experienced a strong boom due to the wool trade. Many farmlands were transformed into pastures.
At the end of the 13th century, the ranchers, with the approval of King Alfonso X, formed an association to protect their interests: the Honorable Council of the Mesta, which became a very powerful organization.
Crafts: As in the rest of Europe, artisans form guilds: wool, tanners, sederos, vinateros, etc.
Trade: A dense commercial network was developed along the Camino de Santiago, due to the number of pilgrims who traveled it. In Castile, wool and wine were produced and exported to Flanders or England. Luxury cloths were imported from Flanders, very popular at the time. In Aragon, fabrics are exported and precious metals and spices are imported. Slave trafficking was also common.
Trade in Europe in the High Middle Ages
6) Culture and art in the Christian Kingdoms
The Toledo School of Translators: After the conquest of Toledo by Alfonso VI in 1086, the important city became a highly relevant cultural center, where scholars of any religion from all over Europe came to exchange knowledge. Toledo was the recipient of Greek and Eastern culture at the time. It was a time of cultural Renaissance that propelled the founding of universities. The first of them, in Palencia in 1212. It was not an ordinary school, there was no building or institution as such, but an influx of sages. Other cultural centers were Barcelona, ​​Zaragoza, Navarra, Segovia, etc.
Literature: Romance languages ​​were developed: cantigas by Alfonso X, Cantar del Mío Cid and others are works of unquestionable quality that are still read today.
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Mudejar Art: It is characterized by mixing typical elements of Islamic architecture (horseshoe arches, lobed arches, Sebka technique, mocárabe, ataurique, tiles, use of brick, segments of alternating red and white colors ...) with Romanesque or Gothic (semicircular and pointed arches, archivolts, apses, barrel vaults and ribbed vaults ...). It is a Christian art and above all architectural. The use of poor materials, such as brick, is notable. Some examples are the Alcázar of Seville, the Church of the Assumption of Utebo or the Church of San Lorenzo de Sahagún.
De los sos ojos tan fuertemientre llorando, tornava la cabeça e estávalos catando.
Vio puertas abiertas e uços sin cañados, alcándaras vazías, sin pielles e sin mantos, e sin falcones e sin adtores mudados. Sospiró mio Cid, ca mucho avié grandes cuidados,
fabló mio Cid bien e tan mesurado:
— ¡Grado a ti, Señor, Padre que estás en alto! ¡Esto me an buelto mios enemigos malos! —
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Cantar del Mío Cid, anónimo del siglo XII
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Palace of Pedro I at Alcázar de Sevilla
Dome of the Ambassadors' Hall at Alcázar de Sevilla
Church of Santiago, Montalbán
Tower of the Church of San Nicolas, Madrid
Tower of San Andres's church, Teruel
Church of San Lorenzo, Sahagún
Tower of San Martin, Teruel
