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Unit 4: Spain. The crisis of the Old Regime

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1) Intro

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The 19th century in Spain, as in the rest of the world, is very complex, but above all, it is marked by a capital event: the end of the Old Regime and the beginning of the Liberal State. Simplifying, we can establish the year 1833 (death of Ferdinand VII) as the border between these two periods. However, derived from this main fact, there are many other events: the failed reign of Carlos IV, the War of Independence against Napoleon,
the first liberal state (Constitution of Cádiz, 1812), the absolutist reign of Ferdinand VII (the second liberal state - Riego Liberal Triennium, 1820-23) and the final transition to the liberal state when Ferdinand VII sees that absolutism cannot resist ; the beginning of the liberal state with Isabel II and the opposition of her uncle Carlos María Isidro, who claims to be an absolutist king (First Carlist War, 1833-1840); the conflict between moderate liberals and progressives during the reign of Isabel, the Glorious Anti-Bourbon Revolution of 1868, the Provisional Government, the reign of Amadeo I, the convulsive First Republic and, finally, the Bourbon Restoration and the turn of parties, which brought peace and stability, but which also institutionalized an evil endemic to Spain: political corruption.

2) The reign of Charles IV (1788-1808)

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The reign of Carlos IV is dark. A man with no will or desire to govern, he ceded power to his minister Manuel Godoy, the queen's lover, who did and undid at will. His entire reign was marked by fear of the French Revolution, which had broken out just a year after his coronation. His reign was involved in a series of crises:

  • Ideological: The French Revolution had beheaded his cousin Louis XVI and in Spain the borders are closed for fear that any revolutionary idea would penetrate. Minister Floridablanca said that Spain had to be isolated from France as if it were an epidemic. However, the presence of some revolutionary and enlightened ideas could not be avoided.

  • Economic: caused by poor harvests, poor industrialization and the interruption of trade with America at the end of the eighteenth century.

  • Political and familiar: At first, Spain joins the First Coalition against Revolutionary France, but is defeated by it between 1793 and 1795, and is forced to join France.
    In 1807, Prince Ferdinand (future King Ferdinand VII) tried to overthrow his father, without success. On the same dates, Godoy signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau, in alliance with Napoleon in his invasion project of Portugal.When the French army enters Spain, they do not behave as allies, but as invaders, and this exhausts the patience of the Spanish people: on March 19, 1808, the Aranjuez Mutiny took place, for which the same people violently deposed Godoy at the instigation of of Prince Ferdinand. That same day, in the midst of the crisis, King Carlos IV abdicated on him, who became Ferdinand VII. The instability and friction within the Spanish royal family were cleverly exploited by Napoleon, who summoned the father and son to Bayonne and managed to get them to abdicate in his person (May 5 and 6). In June, Napoleon handed over the throne of Spain to his brother Joseph Bonaparte, who reigned as Joseph I. Meanwhile, when the people realized that Charles IV and his son Ferdinand had been lured to Bayonne by Napoleon, they felt that the monarchy had been kidnapped and rose up against the French. It was May 2, 1808 and thus began the War of Independence.

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The Treaty of Fontainebleau and the increasing presence of French in Spain favors the formation of two sides:
   1- The Afrancesados (Frenchified): they see the influence of the Enlightenment and French progress as an opportunity for Spain.
   2- The patriots: they rise up against Napoleon and his brother, and fight to defeat France and make Ferdinand VII king of Spain, since he represents the traditional values: absolute monarchy and Catholicism.
Later, the liberals will appear, bourgeois and intellectuals who reject the French invasion, but also the Old Regime represented by Fernando VII. His inspiration is the individual freedoms from the Enlightenment.

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 Goya: La familia de Carlos IV, 1800 

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3) The War of Independence and the liberal revolution (1808-1820)

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On October 27, 1807, the Treaty of Fontainebleau was signed, by which Napoleon and Godoy (the one who really ruled in Spain) agreed to jointly attack Portugal for refusing to accept the continental blockade against England (we studied this in the previous unit). Godoy was especially interested in the treaty, since Napoleon had promised a large region of the south (Algarve) to him personally, not to Spain.
Napoleon did not trust the instability of the Spanish monarchy, with the famous plots between Ferdinand and his father King Charles, and decided to invade Spain instead of collaborating. We already know the rest: the Mutiny of Aranjuez and the Abdications of Bayonne give way to armed confrontation directly with the famous uprising of May 2, 1808.
The war spread throughout Spain, which had England and Portugal as allies.
In the absence of government, the Spanish people governed themselves through the Local Boards (Juntas Locales), governing bodies present in each municipality, Provincial Boards (Juntas Provinciales) and the Central Supreme Board (Junta Central Suprema), located in Aranjuez. Guerrilla warfare spread throughout the territory.

 


The war unfolded in three phases:


   1- May-November 1, 1808: in June the French army is defeated in the open field for the first time in Bailén, province of Jaén. Napoleon regroups his army in Bayonne and divides it into two: one to invade Spain and the other for Portugal.


   2- 1808-1811: France dominates the war and wins several battles. The Supreme Board has to flee from Madrid and settles in Cádiz.


   3- 1811-1813: Spain takes the initiative again and defeats the French at the Battle of Arapiles (1812). That same year, the courts meet in Cadiz and draw up a liberal constitution, it is the famous La Pepa. Napoleon withdraws from Spain to face the Russians.
On December 11, 1813, Napoleon signs the Treaty of Valençay, by which he places Fernando VII as King of Spain.

 

Consequences of the war:
On a political level, the war marks the beginning of the end of the Old Regime in Spain, although it would take another decade for the liberal state to get going. In addition, the war was used by the Spanish colonies in America to declare their independence, given the impossibility of Spain to defend them.


On the human and economic level, it was a disaster, since 500,000 Spaniards died and there was a lack of labor in fields and factories. The Frenchified, wealthy and educated bourgeoisie, took refuge in France for fear of reprisals.

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 Palacio de Valençay, Francia. Aquí residió Fernando VII durante su cautiverio entre 1808 y 1813 

 La guerra de guerrillas. El cura Merino según Pío Baroja 

4) The reign of Ferdinand VII. The transition to the liberal state

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In 1814, Fernando VII returned to Spain. At first, it seemed that he was going to accept the liberal Constitution of Cádiz, but as soon as he found out that he had the support of the most reactionary sectors of the army, the Catholic Church, the old nobility and the absolutist deputies (Manifesto de los Persas) , restored absolutism, returned to the Old Regime and abolished the Constitution of Cádiz. His reign is divided into three phases:


1- The Absolutist Sexennium (1814-1820): the king appealed to his divine right, restored the inquisition and persecuted liberals and afrancesados ​​alike.
Economically, the country is backward, with almost nonexistent industry and unmechanized fields. Trade was very complex due to the different systems of weights and measures.
In the government, cabinets follow one another, which the king appointed and removed at random.


2- The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823): A liberal section of the army, headed by Colonel Rafael de Riego, revolted in defense of the Constitution of Cádiz. The king is forced to abide by the Constitution, although he conspired against the liberals from day one. Finally, a French army, the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis, sent by the Holy Alliance, put an end to the liberal experiment. It is important to point out that, during the three-year period, there was a division within the liberals that will give rise to two large groups, the moderates and the progressives.


3- The Ominous Decade (1823-1833): The economic problems of Spain surrounded the king and he began to timidly approach the liberals. The absolutists see this as a betrayal and rallied around Don Carlos, the king's brother.
Fernando VII, already ill, validated the Pragmatic Sanction, foreseeing that he could have a daughter, which happened in 1830. Queen María Cristina, a convinced absolutist, had to convince the liberals to support her daughter as future queen, in exchange for government reforms. A sector of the nobility and the clergy also gave their support to Isabel, knowing that the days of the Old Regime were numbered.
Ferdinand VII died in 1833, leaving Spain in a very unstable situation. The absolutists gathered around the infante Carlos, who declared war on his niece, Isabel II

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 Textos sobre Fernando VII 

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5) Isabella II

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The Carlist War (1833-1840) marks his minority, during which his mother María Cristina will be the regent. Carlism is the last attempt of the Old Regime to survive. 
Carlism was supported by broad traditional absolutist sectors, especially in rural areas, in the area of ​​the Basque Country, Navarra, Catalonia and the Maestrazgo.
The liberal general Espartero defeated Carlism and sealed peace in the Embrace of Vergara (1839), by which, despite the defeat, the Basque-Navarrese provinces were allowed to maintain their charters and the Carlist military officers to join the army of María Cristina .
During the war, the 'dance' of 19th century constitutions and pronunciamientos had begun:

  • 1836: María Cristina promulgated the 'Royal Statute', which was actually a 'Carta Otorgada', a pseudo-constitution that enlarged royal powers. That same year, the disentailment of President Mendizábal begins: it is about expropriating unproductive assets from the church to put them up for auction and to be acquired by owners who make those lands more productive. It will be a very controversial measure because of the opposition, obviously, from the church and from the most reactionary sectors of society, and because the lands are bought by the nobility, and a rural bourgeoisie of peasant proprietors is not created. This means that the situation changes very little.

      In 1836 there was also a liberal military pronouncement                  (Mutiny of La Granja de San Ildefonso) whose most notable            result was the constitution of 1837.

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  • 1837: A liberal constitution is promulgated. It recognized national sovereignty, broad census suffrage, civil rights (press, association, etc.), economic liberalism, direct taxes.

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From now on, the Liberals are going to fight each other. The division between moderates and progressives comes from the Liberal Triennium, but now they will face each other by arms, and each 'pronunciamiento' of one of the two parties will have a military officer at the head. These soldiers who are so fond of coups are known as "Los Espadones": Espartero, Narváez, O'Donnell, Serrano and Prim.

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The progressives will remain in power from 1836 to 1844.

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  • 1840: Espartero is in charge of the regency, but his authoritarian policy puts him against even those of his own party.

  • 1843: Narvaez leads a 'pronunciamiento' and brings the moderates to power.

  • 1844-1854: Moderate Decade. The moderates have a motto, "Liberty with order", and they implement it through the heavy hand and support of the queen mother. Isabel II had been proclaimed queen in 1843 when she was only 13 years old.

  • 1845: moderate constitution, with limited rights and freedoms, census suffrage, confessionalism and shared sovereignty between the nation and the queen.

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The stability of the moderate government led to important reforms: Public Instruction Law, foundation of the Civil Guard, modernization of taxes, the Isabel II Canal, etc.)

 

  • Progressive biennium (1854-56). The corruption in the government and the controversial cabal of interested people and miracle nuns that surrounds the queen are very unpopular. In Vicálvaro, a new 'pronunciamiento' led by General Leopoldo O'Donnell took place ('La Vicalvarada'). The president will be Espartero, although both collaborate in government tasks.
    Some progressive measures are taken, such as the disentailment of Madoz and the law to build a radial network of railways.
    The queen's clique influences her to withdraw all her support for the progressives, and the moderates return to power in 1856.

  • Last years (1856-1868): progressives see armed revolution as the only way to access power. In 1866, progressives and democrats (supporters of more radical reforms, of ceding more power to the people) met in Belgium. There, they sign the Pact of Ostend, to "make the Bourbons fall" and elect General Juan Prim as leader of the revolutionary movement. In 1868 the 'Glorious Revolution' took place and on September 30 of that same year, Isabella II left for France, into exile.

 Pío Baroja on María Cristina, Isabella II, Francisco de Asís and Sor Patrocinio 

 Isabella II going into exile, 1868 

 Excerpts from 'La de los tristes destinos' by Benito Pérez Galdós. 

6. The Democratic Sexennium

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Definitively, the Old Regime disappears. Prim's great project is to modernize and democratize Spain, but it is still a project of the bourgeoisie, which did not include the popular classes.
The administration goes through three stages: Provisional Government, Reign of Amadeo I and First Republic.


6.1) The Provisional Government:
It is led by Prim, Serrano and Topete.
There are divisions within the architects of the revolution: radical democrats, moderate democrats, republicans, monarchists, supporters of revolutionary labor movements, etc.
However, in 1869 they proclaim a new constitution, whose most important points are:
-National sovereignty.
-Universal male suffrage, for the first time in Spain.
-Religious freedom.
-Monarchy as a form of government.

The Government began to look for a king for Spain. They tried it with the Hohenzollerns, but the matter ended in war between Prussia and France, as we already know. Finally, the crown was offered to Amadeus of Savoy, son of Victor Emmanuel II, King of Italy, who reigned as Amadeo I between 1871 and 1873.

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6.2 Amadeo I (1871-1873)

 

The so-called "democratic monarchy" had a short and difficult life. His main supporter, General Prim, was assassinated three days before his arrival. The charisma of this general was the only thing that kept progressives and democrats united, who from now on separate their positions.
The opposition harassed him, and he even suffered an attack in the summer of 1872 from which he emerged unharmed.
On February 11, 1873, almost without support and finding himself unable to remedy the crisis in Spain, Amadeo I abdicated. That same day the First Republic was proclaimed.

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 The Provisional Government, 1868 

 Amadeo's letter of abdication (February 11, 1873) 

7. The First Republic (February 1873-December 1874)

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The First Republic went through hard times: it was not only political disagreement and institutional chaos, but also the three simultaneous wars: The Third Carlist War, The Ten Years War in Cuba and the Cantonal Rebellion.

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The first president was Estanislao Figueras (February-June '73), a representative of the upper bourgeoisie who did not carry out any far-reaching reforms, despite the fact that the working class requested them.
In parliament there were many federalist deputies, that is, they wanted the regions to have more autonomy and freedom. Figueras's group tried to eliminate the federalists by force but was unsuccessful and had to resign.
The next president was Francisco Pi i Margall (June-July '73), who wanted to build a federal Spain and even wrote a constitution that never saw the light of day. The impulse to federalism gave rise to a cantonal rebellion in which several regions proclaimed to be independent cantons. The cantonal movement was especially strong in Cartagena.
Pi i Margall resigned for not being able to control the rebellion and was replaced by Nicolás Salmerón (July-September '73), who put an end to the cantonalist movement, but resigned for not wanting to apply the death penalty to the cantonal leaders.
The last president was Emilio Castelar (September '73 - January '74), who governed by decree, despotically. The rest of the important parties withdrew their support and the deputies were called to elect a new president on January 3, 1974.
During the election, the army, on its own and without any political backing, staged a coup to end the Republic. It was the first time that the army deposed a government on its own in the history of Spain. General Serrano seized power until in December 1974 the Bourbon monarchy was restored in the figure of Alfonso XII.

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 Allegory of the First Republic 

8) Economic modernization.

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8.1) Population growth.

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Improved nutrition caused an increase in population. Crops such as corn and potatoes became widespread.
In the 19th century began the continuous rural exodus that affects Spain to this day: people emigrate from the countryside to work and live in the city.

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8.2) Agrarian transformations.

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-Abolition of the feudal system: the privileges of the nobility, such as administering justice or collecting taxes on their fiefdoms, pass to the State.
-Disentailment: The State expropriated unused land from the church and the nobility and put it up for auction, but it was the rich families who bought it, so the expected economic movement did not occur. There were two major confiscations: that of Mendizábal in 1836 and that of Madoz in 1855.
-Mechanization of agriculture and use of fertilizers.

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8.3) Industrialization

 

Industrialization was slow due to the lack of entrepreneurial spirit of the small Spanish bourgeoisie, and the traditional way of being of the nobility, always much more rural. Nor did Spain have the technology that other European countries had.
Even so, there was a slow but steady industrialization, especially in the Basque Country, Catalonia and Levante and Madrid. The main sectors were: mining, iron and steel and the textile sector.
In the mid-nineteenth century the first large banks appeared (Bank of Spain, Bank of Bilbao, Bank of Santander) and the stock markets of Madrid and Barcelona.
With industrialization appeared, as usual, conflicts between workers and bosses and the first labor movements of a Luddite, Marxist and Anarchist character.

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