Unit 4: The Iberian Peninsula between the 8th and 11th centuries
1. Al-Andalus. Islam enters the Iberian Peninsula
2. Political evolution
3. Political and economic organization
4. Society and everyday life
5. Culture and art in Al-Andalus
6. Christian kingdoms (722-1035)
7. Resettlement, economy and society of the Christian Kingdoms
8. Pre-Romanesque art
9. Romanesque in Spain
Review cards and test
1. Al-Andalus. Islam enters the Iberian Peninsula.
1.1) The conquest
The expansion of the Islamic Empire was a constant threat to the European Christian kingdoms. In this topic we will learn how the invasion and Arabization of the Iberian Peninsula took place, dominated until then by the Visigoth kingdom of Toledo.
In the year 711, Musa, the Muslim governor of North Africa, sends his lieutenant Tariq to an expedition of recognition in the south of the Iberian Peninsula. Its purpose was to check if there was wealth there to plunder. That same year the Battle of Guadalete takes place, in which Tariq's troops easily defeat the Christians of King Don Rodrigo. Faced with the weakness of the Visigothic kingdom, the Arabs, with the help of Berber mercenaries, decided to conquer the whole Peninsula.
The conquest was very fast: in four years the Muslims dominated almost all the peninsular territory, but a focus of resistance was created in Asturias, where the battle of Covadonga (722) took place, in which the Christian victory gave moral to these men for undertake a war of reconquest.
The Muslims, however, did not put much effort into the conquest of Asturias. It seems more likely that his goal was to penetrate the Frankish Kingdom, an objective to which they devoted their greatest efforts. However, they could not reach it, as they were defeated at the Battle of Poitiers (732) by Charles Martel (or Charles the Hammer), Charlemagne's grandfather.
Don Rodrigo, Visigoth king
(†711)
Musa Ibn Nusair, North Africa
muslim gobernor (†716)
Tariq Ibn Ziyad (†722). Berber warrior
and Musa's lieutenant.
2) Political evolution
2.1) Independent Emirate (756-929)
At first, Al-Andalus was organized as one more province of the Umayyad caliphate, but in Damascus this dynasty went into war with another rival dynasty: the Abbasids. The latter defeated and killed all the Umayyads except Prince Abd al-Rahman, who fled to North Africa and sought protection among the Berbers, since his mother belonged to this ethnic group. From this point, he went to the Iberian Peninsula with his supporters and established a new government in the form of an independent emirate (politically autonomous from the Abbasids).
In the north, the Christians advance and occupy the riverbank of the Douro River, which was practically uninhabited, while in the northeast, Charlemagne crosses the Pyrenees and founds the Marca Hispánica, vassal territories that will function as a containment to a possible Muslim expansion towards the Frankish Kingdom.
Practice with a crossword here.
The muslim conquest by 756
Abd al Rahman I, 1st emir of Cordoba
2.2) Caliphate of Cordoba and Taifa Kingdoms (939-1086)
Abd al-Rahman III decided to break with religious obedience to the Abbasids of Baghdad and proclaimed himself Caliph of Cordoba (maximum political and religious leader). Al-Andalus is now a completely independent kingdom
from the Arab Empire.
Abd al-Rahman III reorganized the army, brought peace to his domains and promoted a cultural flourishing in Al-Andalus as never seen before.
Years later, General Almanzor (de facto leader instead of Caliph Hisham II) undertook violent attacks against the Christian areas, looting Barcelona and Santiago (977), from where he took the bells and the doors of the cathedral, forcing his Christian slaves to take them to Cordoba to manufacture the lamps of the mosque.
After his death in 1002 there was a period of instability and internal tensions in Al-Andalus, in which the successive caliphs, who lasted very little, did not know or could not impose their authority. In the year 1009 begins the civil war (fitna of Al-Andalus) that ends in 1031, with the division of the territory into taifas (sides), constituted as independent kingdoms. There were 28 Taifa kingdoms that were in constant conflict between them.
In 1086, a tribe from North Africa, the Almoravids, enter the Iberian Peninsula with the aim of reunifying all the taifas and return to the greatness of Al-Andalus, which they achieved for a time.
Abd al-Rahman III (912-961).
1st caliph of Cordoba
Almanzor (978-1002) Military leader at the end of the 10th century
3. Political and economic organization
3.1) Politics
The political organization of Al-Andalus reminds us, logically, of the Muslim Empire. This diagram shows the different power relations.
3.2) Economy
The economy was based on agriculture. There were rainfed crops (the famous Mediterranean trilogy: wheat, vine and olive) and irrigated (oranges, lemon, etc.) The Arabs introduced new inventions to irrigate the fields, such as water channels or waterwheels, as we saw in the unit about Islam.
They also brought spices like saffron from the east, and crops such as rice, sugarcane or cotton.
In addition to agriculture, other occupations were crafts (cloth, ceramics, leather, wood, ivory, glass ...) mining, livestock, coins minting (such as gold dinar or silver dirham) and trade. Especially profitable was the trade of luxury goods and slaves.
Olive, wheat and vine, the Mediterranean triad
4. Society and everyday life
As always, society is divided into several groups according to their economic level and origin.
1) The aristocracy or jassa, formed by the relatives of the conquering chiefs.
2) The rest (amma) were divided into:
* Other Arabs and Syrians.
* Berbers from North Africa, who formed the majority of the army and who, despite being Muslims as well, often clashed with the Arabs, who treated them as second-class citizens
* Mozarabs: Christians who lived in Muslim territory. They were the inhabitants of Visigothic Hispania who suffered the Muslim invasion.
* Muladis: Christians who converted to Islam, by conviction or by the advantages that it entailed, such as being exempt from certain taxes.
* Jews: At first they saw with good eyes the Muslim invasion, because they allowed them to live in better conditions than the Visigoths.
* Slaves: Normaly, they were prisoners of war or product from the trade.
Education reached a lot of relevance, especially among the Arab elites. Madrasas (Muslim higher education schools) and universities were built.
One of the most important madrasas was founded by the Nasrid king Yusuf I in Granada.
Do not get confused with these terms:
Mozarab: Christian who lives in the Muslim zone.
Muladi: Christian who converts to Islam.
Mudejar: Muslim who lives in the Christian zone.
Morisco: Muslim who converts to Christianity.
5. Culture and art in Al-Andalus.
The Andalusian population, at least in times of peace, benefited from the cultural exchange between the three cultures that inhabited the Peninsula: Jewish, Muslim and Christian.
In addition, it was the Arabs who preserved, translated and explained great works of classical Greece, and thanks to their work, today we know, for example, the work of Aristotle. Christian and Jewish intellectuals even learned Arabic in order to discuss their ideas with them.
In literature, Ibn Hazm stood out, with his work 'The ring of the dove'.
In philosophy, Averroes wrote many commentaries on the work of Aristotle.
In music, poetry and other sciences, Avempace made works of great value, such as the music pieces called Núba Al-Istihal.
It came to me, as the water from the cloud was released into the air
Like pure silver that spreads when melted.
The half moon, among the darkness, declined in its orbit.
Talk about a lover who got the unattainable!
It was such that if you asked me about it
I could not answer you more than laughing.
For the excess of my joy, I think that I have dreamed it.
Marvel at the one who doubts, being sure!
Ibn Hazm, The ring of the dove
Ibn Hazm (11th century) on a Spanish postal stamp
Statue of philosopher Averroes
(12th century) in Cordoba, Spain
Avempace (12th century)
Architecture from Al Andalus.
The most important buildings are in the city of Cordoba. On the one hand, the impressive mosque, whose enormous dimensions give us an account of the importance of the city at that time. It was built and enlarged during the 8th to the 10th centuries. It was started by Emir Abd al-Rahman I and finished by the military leader Almanzor. Outside, the large horseshoe arch doors are surrounded by an alfiz. Inside there is a forest of columns that populate the prayer room. In the middle of the latter, it rises the Christian cathedral, built after the reconquest.
On the other hand, the palace of Medina Azahara (Arabic: The City of Flowers) is located on the outskirts of Cordoba. It was built in the 10th century as the residence of Caliph Abd al-Rahaman III and destroyed during the reconquest, so that today you can only see ruins. However, there are parts of the palace that are fairly well preserved.
In the field of goldsmithing, the 'Bote de Zamora' is remarkable: a cylindrical jeweler carved by hand on ivory from the 10th century. It was a gift from the Caliph Al-Hakam II to his concubine Subh.
6. Christian kingdoms (722-1035)
5.1) The Cantabrian group.
In 722, under the command of Don Pelayo, the Asturians defeated the Moors at the Battle of Covadonga. This victory filled the Christian troops with encouragement. Later, in the 9th century, Alfonso III extended this kingdom from Galicia to Cantabria, and began to repopulate the Douro valley.
In the tenth century, another king, Ordoño II, moves the capital to León, thus creating the kingdom of León (also known as the Asturian-Leonese kingdom).
In the eleventh century, Ferdinand I, son of the Navarrese king Sancho III the Great, inherited the territories of Castile and became the first Castilian king. In 1037 he declared war on the Asturian-Leonese kingdom and after his victory Leon was annexed, thus creating the kingdom of Castile and Leon.
5.2) The Pyrinean groups
In 1004 Sancho III the Great is crowned. He was the most important king of Navarre, owner of a large territory that included, in addition to Navarre, what is now the Basque Country, Castile, Aragon, Ribagorza and Sobrarbe. When he died in 1035, he divided his territories among his sons, thus giving rise to the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon. This was not a good idea, because their children ended up fighting each other and the kingdom of Navarre never regained its former greatness. One of his sons was Fernando I, of whom we have spoken before, who was the first king of Castile and also conquered the Astur-Leonese kingdom to King Bermudo III.
In the northeastern part of the peninsula, at the end of the 8th century, Charlemagne imposed his law on the Catalan counties and converted them into his vassals. It constituted, in this way, a militarized frontier between the Frankish kingdom and Al-Andalus. This border of small vassal counties of Charlemagne is known as the Spanish March. At the end of the 9th century, Count Wilfred the Hairy unified the Catalan counties, and by the end of the tenth century, with the decline of the Frankish kingdom, these counties gained de facto independence.
Here is a diagram with the interaction of the Christian kingdoms during this complex period in Spanish History called Reconquista.
He was the most powerful king of his time (early 11th century). The great kingdom of Navarre ended up dividing into three: Castile, Navarre and Aragon.
He was the son of Sancho III the Great. When Sancho died, he divided his kingdom and Ramiro got Aragon, where he was the first king.
Vassal of the Franks for being a count of the Spanish March, he managed to unite the Catalan Counties under his command in 878. His descendants will achieve independence from the Franks in 988.
He was the most powerful king of his time (early 11th century). The great kingdom of Navarre ended up dividing into three: Castile, Navarre and Aragon.
7. Resettlement, economy and society of the Christian Kingdoms
6.1) Resettlement and organization
As the Christians began taking over territories from the Muslims, it started a process of resettlement. The Douro Valley, a practically unpopulated area, was the first to be resettled. This resettlement was carried out in a very anarchic way. Most of the time, whoever first arrived on a land, stayed, whether peasant, noble or abbot. This process is called presura. Other times, the king signed property titles and granted the land to his vassals. These titles were called municipal charters.
The resettled lands were governed by delegates of the king (or the count, in the case of Castilla or Catalonia).
6.2 Economy
The economy was based on agriculture. In the mountain areas cattle ranching was practiced, and in the flat areas, farming through the fallow system.
Handicrafts and commerce were very scarce and concentrated in the few existing cities. The most important were: Santiago, because of the pilgrimages; León, because it is the seat of the bishop; and Barcelona, capital of a rich county.
6.3 Society
The majority of the people were free peasants, because the feudal system did not settle in the Iberian Peninsula, except in the Catalan counties. These peasants were also owners of the land they worked.
The nobility was scarce, and there was also a growing number of clerics.
8. Pre-Romanesque art
There are two types of art that occurred in the Iberian Peninsula before the irruption of the Romanesque, between the 5th and 8th centuries: Asturian art and Mozarabic art.
1) Asturian art: It took place between the 8th and 10th centuries. It is a palatial and religious art. Poor materials are used and semicircular arches, barrel vaults, fresco paintings, and little sketched sculptures appear.
Some notable examples of Asturian architecture are: the palace (and later church) of Santa María del Naranco, and the churches of San Miguel de Lillo, San Tirso el Real or the chapel of Santa Cristina de Lena.
2) Mozarabic art It refers to the churches that were built by Christian residents in Al-Andalus (Mozarabic) and, by extension, those that were built by these Mozarabs when they settled in the Christian kingdoms in the north. In Al-Andalus the law was restrictive and they could not build many churches, so when Muslim pressure became unbearable, these Mozarabs fled to Christian territory and built other temples. In this type of architecture, we can see the mix of Christian and Muslim influence, such us the use of the caliphal horseshoe arches, more slender than the Visigoth . Some of these temples are San Miguel de la Escalada(León), San Baudelio de Berlanga (Soria) or San Cebrián de Mazote (Valladolid).
Miniatures
In the field of illustration, there are books called Beatus full of miniatures about the Apocalypse. The original Beatus was written by a Mozarabic monk of the 8th century named Beato de Liébana, hence its name. All other 'Beatus' are a copy of the original. Its drawings represent scenes from the Apocalypse, so they are full of monsters and fantastic characters. In these books we can appreciate the characteristics of medieval painting: absence of perspective, flat and very bright colors, rigidity, serious expression.
He defeated the Muslims at the battle of Covadonga (722). That was the starting point of Spanish 'Reconquista'
He reign from 866 to 910 and expanded de Christian territory until the Duero river.
He was Fernando I's brother in law and king of Leon until he was killed in battle by Fernando's troops in 1037
He defeated the Muslims at the battle of Covadonga (722). That was the starting point of Spanish 'Reconquista'
Frogs coming out of the Dragon's, the Beast's and the False Prophet's mouths. Frogs symbolize lie.
The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse.
The Dragon giving its power to the Beast.
Frogs coming out of the Dragon's, the Beast's and the False Prophet's mouths. Frogs symbolize lie.
The Camino de Santiago.
In the 9th century a tomb was discovered in an area of Galicia called 'The field of the star' (Campus stellae = Compostela). Due to rumors that Santiago the apostle had reached the Iberian Peninsula, the human remains were identified with those of the apostle. A cathedral was built over the tomb and a city was built around. This place has been a destination for pilgrims since then until today.
The different pilgrimage routes favored the
development of cities, the construction of
churches, inns and hospitals and the
commercial and cultural exchange between
different countries of Europe.
9. Romanesque in Spain.
Although it has common characteristics with the Romanesque of the rest of Europe, it has some peculiarities. It developed around two schools.
1) Catalan School: It has a lot of influence of the Lombard architecture, as can be appreciated by the constant presence of Lombard bands on the exterior walls. Also, the high bell towers ara typical from this school.
Some examples of this architecture are the Churches of San Clemente and Santa María in Tahull (Lérida) and the Monastery of San Pedro de Roda (Gerona).
2) Castilian-Aragonese School: It has influence of the French Romanesque, and is linked to the pilgrimages to Santiago. In these churches the usual characteristics of the Romanesque are observed: barrel vaults, semicircular arches, buttresses, groin vaults, and in the frontals, sculpted tympanum surrounded by archivolts.
Some important examples are: the monastery of Santa María de Sangüesa (Navarra), the churches of San Martín de Fromista (Palencia) and San Isidoro (León), the collegiate church of Toro (Zamora) and, above all, the cathedral of Santiago de Compostela.
Catalonian Romanesque: Notice the high bell towers, built that way so bells could be heard all across the valley, and the lombard bands in the second and third picture. (San Clemente and Santa María churches, both in Tahull, Lérida). In the last picture (Monastery of San Pedro de Roda, Gerona) barrell vaults and semicircular arches can be appreciated.
On the left: Interior of the apse in San Clemente de Tahull, today located at the Museum of Art of Barcelona. Above these lines: Interior of the apse in Santa María de Tahull. Notice the lack of perspective, the adaptation of the figures to the space, the thick outlines, the rigidity and the serious expression
TEST
Click here to complete the test on Unit 4
Haz click aquí para ver la Gymkhana del viaje a Toledo