Unit 2: The age of Revolution (1770-1871)
I offer neither pay, nor quarters, nor provisions; I offer hunger, thirst, forced marches, battles and death. Let him who loves his country in his heart, and not with his lips only, follow me.
Giuseppe Garibaldi
1) The revolutions that put an end to the Old Regime
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The thinkers of the Enlightenment put on paper some social, political and economic approaches that were already on the lips of many. His influence resulted in a series of revolutions that ended the Old Regime. They began in England (Glorious Revolution and Bill of Rights, 1688-89) and continued with the Atlantic revolutions: American War of Independence (1775-1783) and French Revolution (1789-1799). It is from the latter that historians consider that the Contemporary Age begins, since changes are introduced that, in many societies, continue today:
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End of absolute monarchies and beginning of constitutional monarchies or parliamentary republics.
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Parliaments with parties of different ideologies
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Participation of the population in politics (initially, only men)
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Division of powers (legislative, executive and judicial)
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National sovereignty
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Society by classes, with the prevalence of the bourgeoisie
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Industry-based economy, liberal capitalist type.
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The influence of the French Revolution spread to other countries in Europe during the 19th century, and the Old Regime disappeared from practically all nations.
2) The American Revolution (American War of Independence, 1776-1783)
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The illustrated ideas crossed the Atlantic and gave birth to a series of thinkers who lived in the northern English colonies. These men, known as the "Founding Fathers" were the inspirers of independence. Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin or George Washington were some of them.
In North America there were 13 prosperous and resource-rich British colonies. The relationship with the metropolis was not good: in England the colonies did not have parliamentary representation and, nevertheless, had to pay numerous taxes, since they were rich provinces. The motto of the Americans was "No taxation without representation". The tension between King George III and the colonies grew to the point that the War of Independence broke out (1775-1783). On July 4, 1776, independence was declared. The United States was constituted as a democracy from its origins, based on political liberalism according to the enlightened ideas, especially those of John Locke. The constitution of the new country was promulgated in 1787 and, in 1789, George Washington was named the first president.
The Founding Fathers: Washington, Jefferson, Adams and Franklin
Texts about the independence of the United States
3) The French Revolution
3.1) Causes and origins:
The ideas of the Enlightenment did not fall on deaf ears. French intellectuals in the late 18th century were inspired by Locke / Montesquieu's division of powers, Rousseau's doctrine of national sovereignty and the social contract, and Voltaire's critique of absolutism and fanaticism, and revolutionary proclamations are riddled with these ideas.
On the other hand, France continues to have a class society, typical of the Old Regime. Industrialization has not yet occurred and it is a fundamentally rural country (of 26 million inhabitants, 24 lived in the countryside). The landed nobility held manorial rights and the Church continued to collect tithes. Another large part of the nobility has become a courtesan, living close to the king, whom they flatter for favors.
The bourgeoisie, for its part, progresses economically, but claims its share of political power, which the privileged classes are not willing to give up. This bourgeoisie, together with artisans and peasants, forms the Third Estate, with many burdens and few rights, which will be the most genuinely revolutionary.
The king, Louis XVI, for his part, lives a lavish life, unaware that French society is boiling.
Economically, France is in serious trouble: inflation is rampant, and the bread riots are not long in coming. The king's ministers can think of nothing else than to try to get the nobility and clergy to start paying taxes, so these estates are the first to rebel.
On the political level, Louis XVI is an absolute monarch. The parliament (called in France Estates General), although it came into existence in the past, has not met for more than 170 years. Any suggestion of the division of powers is considered by the monarchy as an attack on its divine right. All these factors are the breeding ground for revolutionary France.
3.2) States General and National Constituent Assembly (1789-1792)
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Curiously, the French Revolution is started by the privileged: nobility and clergy are not willing to pay taxes to save France from bankruptcy and, in any case, they ask that Estates-General of the Kingdom be held (that is, that parliament meets) to discuss this matter.
Louis XVI is reluctant, the last time the Estates- General met was in 1614. His ancestors reigned with absolute power and no one disputed it, but finally he had to accept: on May 5, 1789, the Estates-General met in the palace of Versailles. One problem that the privileged estates had to face is that, by law, the Estates-General had to include representatives of all estates, so the third estate, the underprivileged, a mixture of bourgeois, peasants, artisans and liberal professionals, also was present.
The king did not want to discuss more than the financial issue, but other groups, such as the Third Estate, wanted to go further and expose all their discontent. The requests of each group were collected in hundreds of cahiers de doléances (notebooks of complaints).
There were all kinds of demands: some peasants asked for the total abolition of taxes, many nobles clung to their privileges, although others joined the third estate, renouncing theirs; The bourgeoisie and the nobility agreed that a constitutional monarchy was necessary, but they differed on the issue of privileges, etc.
The biggest controversy came when the king and the privileged demanded the vote by estate (that is, the nobility would have one vote, the clergy another and the third estate another). This gave them a distinct advantage, because if nobility and clergy united against the third estate, they would always win two against one. The third estate obviously refused this and left the Palace of Versailles on June 20. They then went to a fronton court (the Jeu de Paume) where they took a solemn oath not to stop fighting until France had a Constitution. The king reluctantly accepted the pressure of the Third Estate and on June 27 the Estates General became the National Constituent Assembly.
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The privileged estates and the king wanted to compromise, but they were preparing a reaction against what they considered an attack against their customary rights. Some popular revolutionary leaders, such as Camille Desmoulins, alert the people to the intentions of the privileged and encourage them to take up arms. On July 14, the assault on the Bastille prison, a symbol of absolutism, takes place. Cockades were seen with the colors blue and red, the flag of Paris, to which will be added the white, symbol of the monarchy, because the people do not stop thinking that the king is ignorant of their miserable situation and that he will put himself out for his people when he realizes of it. The French National Holiday is celebrated, every year, on this same date.
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Anti-seignorial riots break out throughout France, especially in the countryside, it is the time of the Grande Peur (The Great Fear), and in Paris, the National Assembly abolishes the privileges and seigniorial rights and approves the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (August 26, 1789), with equality before the law as a philosophy. The king has no choice but to give his approval to the revolutionaries.
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In September 1791, a Constitution inspired by the great ideas of the Enlightenment was approved, which establishes:
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Division of powers (the king would have the executive power and the National Assembly the legislative)
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National sovereignty (Louis XVI is no longer "king of France", but "king of the French")
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Census suffrage
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Universal and free education
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Freedom of expression
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Religious freedom
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Economic freedom
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Right to private property
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Louis XVI, who three months earlier had been caught trying to flee France in the course of a conspiracy orchestrated by the high nobility and the Emperor of Austria - Marie Antoinette's brother - signs this constitution, but his word is in doubt.
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At the end of 1791, the liberal bourgeoisie is happy: they have managed to make France a moderate constitutional monarchy, in which their rights and aspirations are recognized and they are the new ruling class, but not everything is happiness. The common people are still unable to participate in politics, and also have to redeem the abolition of manorial rights out of their pockets. They feel that they have been cheated and betrayed. Tempers heat up and minds are radicalized.
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3.3) Radicalization and proclamation of the republic (1792)
Countries where the Old Regime still survives, and even those with moderate governments, fear that the revolution will spread to their countries and form an Austrian-led coalition to confront France. Thus began the Coalition Wars. The first of these coalitions is made up of: Austria, The Holy Roman Empire, Prussia, England, Spain, Portugal, Naples, Sardinia and the United Provinces of the Netherlands, and they were supported by the French royalists.
Austria and Prussia make an attempt to invade France, and France declares war on April 20, 1792. Louis XVI secretly conspires to win the coalition. The National Assembly proposes to form an army of volunteers to defend Paris, the king refuses and is accused of being a traitor by a big part of the deputies.
The war does not start well for Revolutionary France, and they lose some battles. The common people of Paris (sans-culottes) and some deputies of the main parties (Girondins and Jacobins) think that the king is conspiring against them and they storm the Tuileries Palace on August 10, 1792, where they arrest the whole royal family.
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In September, new members are elected by universal male suffrage to the National Assembly, which changes its name to the National Convention. His first action is to abolish the monarchy and proclaim the Republic. After a quick trial, the king would be guillotined in January of the following year.
Louis XVI, under arrest
June 20, 1789: The oath at the Jeu de Paume
July 14, 1789: Storm of the Bastille
September, 1791: Liberal constitution
September, 1792: Battle of Valmy, part of the Coalition Wars
August 10, 1792: Storming of the Tuileries Palace. The Royal family was put under arrest
Propaganda sign of the French Republic
Texts about the French Revolution
3.4) The Republic of the Girondins (September 1792-June 1793)
The Girondins was a political party made up of members of the merchant bourgeoisie. They wanted to establish in France a moderate liberal republic that guaranteed certain freedoms, which would be very beneficial for their businesses, but they rejected the social equality demanded by the sans-culottes and other more radical groups of the common people.
As representatives of the sans-culottes and the most revolutionary common people, another party was established: the Jacobins, rival of the Girondins. These Jacobins were not the majority in the National Convention, but they were in the streets, where they organized riots and revolts. With their leader Maximilien Robespierre at the helm, they lobbied for the king to be executed. After a swift trial full of fiery speeches, Louis XVI was guillotined in January 1793.
Here you can see the trial and the execution according to the movie Un peuple et son roi (2018)
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The situation was complicated: the execution of the king caused the First Coalition War to escalate, forcing the organization of new levies en masse. The rural population of the Vendée region, on the west coast, rebelled against levies and famine and ended up declaring a civil war between supporters and detractors of the revolution. Meanwhile, in Paris, the sans-culottes continue to demand social equality through street fighting.
3.5) The Republic of the Jacobins (June 1793-July 1794)
In this atmosphere of tension, the Jacobins accused the Girondists of ignoring popular demands and deposed the government by force, executing the Girondist leaders. The most relevant Jacobin leaders are Robespierre, Marat, D'Anton and Saint-Just.
These elaborated in 1793 a constitution (Constitution of the year I) more progressive than the one that existed, in which it is collected:
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Popular sovereignty
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Universal male suffrage
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Right of rebellion against oppression
Other Jacobin reforms were:
-The law of the maximum (ceiling on the prices of basic necessities)
-Free and mandatory education
-The Republican Revolutionary Calendar
-Access of the popular classes to being officers in the army
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All these reforms were opposed by the groups of moderate revolutionaries, conservatives and monarchists that still remained. The Jacobins decided to impose their reforms despotically, by force, and declared a state of war. They established a new government called the Committee of Public Safety and enacted the Law of Suspects, which basically meant that anyone who opposed the Jacobin Committee Public Safety would be arrested. This time is known as The Reign of Terror, and thousands of people were guillotined.
In 1794 the French revolutionary army managed to defeat the Coalition and the anti-speculation measures managed to refloat the economy, but the Reign of Terror had gone too far, all the enemies of the Jacobins united and staged a coup in the Convention, where Robespierre and his supporters were arrested. The "Incorruptible" was executed in the summer of 1794.
From the arrest of Louis XVI until the execution of Robespierre
A Sans-culotte cut-out toy
Saint-Just
Execution of King Louis XVI, January 1793
Execution of Robespierre, 1794
Texts about the 1st Republic (1793-1794)
3.6) The moderate Directory and the 18th Brumaire
After Robespierre's execution, the moderate bourgeoisie returned to power and the Jacobin party and its supporters were outlawed.
In 1795 a new Constitution appears (Constitution of the Year III), according to which the executive power fell to a new organ: the Directory, formed by five members. The Marseillaise, composed years before during the war against Austria, became the official anthem of the French Republic.
However, the country is still full of problems: the economic crisis cannot be stopped and the common people, the sans-culottes, continue to demand equality and the return of a Jacobin government. For their part, the absolutists have never accepted the republic, and proclaim that France remains a monarchy: they assume as king the ill-fated Louis XVII (son of Louis XVI) and later his uncle, Louis XVIII, who will become king, but not before 1814.
However, the Coalition Wars continue and France reaps many successes. So much so that the bourgeoisie began to notice a young Corsican general who has achieved fame on the battlefield: Napoleon Bonaparte. Supported by these upper classes and by the army, which idolizes him, he staged a coup on the 18th Brumaire (November 9, 1799) and became the country's leader with the title of consul.
François Bouchot: General Bonaparte during the coup d'état of 18 Brumaire
Review the main events of the French revolution with this Froggy Jumps game
4) Napoleon
4.1) Rise and empire
Napoleon takes advantage of his fame and promulgates a new Constitution in 1799 (Constitution of Year VIII) in which he accumulates the three powers and appoints himself first consul. This centralization of power in his person does not end here: in 1802 he appointed himself consul for life and in 1804, emperor, in whose coronation Pope Pius VII participated.
One of the most striking features of Napoleon's personality resides in his contradictory character: he concentrated all power as if he were an absolute monarch, but he maintained the revolutionary ideas that seemed just to him: equality before the law, end of the privileges of nobility and clergy, economy based on liberalism, with a strong defense of private property. All these ideas were collected in the Civil Code of 1804, of which he was always very proud, since he considered it his masterpiece, and which was very influential in the development of other European civil codes during the 19th century. In short, he himself affirmed that "the Revolution is over" but maintained the idea of ​​modernizing France under some of its principles.
4.2) To the conquest of Europe
Napoleon was so confident in his ideals and in his Civil Code that he wanted to export them to all of Europe, by force, though. His project was to create a kind of Roman Empire (of which he was a great admirer, you only have to see the Arc de Triomphe in Paris) with its center in the French capital. Obviously, the rest of the countries do not want to be dominated, and the Coalition wars continue, but this time, instead of fighting the Revolution, they fight Napoleon. He beat the Coalition on numerous occasions. Only England could defeat him at Trafalgar (1805), which is why Napoleon tried to isolate England through the blockade tactic, but never succeeded. At its peak, around 1812, he extended its empire from Spain to the gates of Moscow.
It was precisely the campaigns of Spain and Russia that undermined their power. In Spain an intense guerrilla war was fought (1808-1814) that ended with the resignation of Napoleon, and in Russia (1812) the tactic of scorched earth and the harsh winter wiped out more than half of his army. In 1814, the Sixth Coalition (Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, Sweden and Spain) defeated him in Leipzig and he was forced to abdicate. Louis XVIII, brother of Louis XVI, ascends the throne and sends Napoleon into exile on the island of Elba, off the coast of Italy.
Louis XVIII wanted to return to absolutism but a large part of his people and the army turned against him. This was used by Napoleon to gather a group of faithful and return to France, where he was welcomed with joy by the army officers. Bonaparte became Emperor of France again, but only between March and July 1815 ("The Hundred Days Empire") as a Seventh Coalition was formed to fight against him (Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, Sweden, Spain, Netherlands, and Hannover) and was definitely defeated at Waterloo (June 18, 1815). Napoleon was exiled again, but this time to the island of Saint Helena, in the middle of the Atlantic. There he would die in 1821.
For watching a video on Napoleon's career highlights, click here.
Jacques-Louis David: The coronation of Napoleon, 1806
Jacques Louis David: Napoleon crossing the Alps
Campaing of Russia, 1812-1813
This music was composed to commemorate
the Russian victory over Napoleon
Texts by Napoleon
5)The Restoration
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5.1) The Europe of Congresses
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Britain, Prussia, Austria and Russia have defeated Napoleon at Waterloo, but the fear of revolutionary ideas remains. These countries are in contact to prevent the Old Regime from falling apart. It is true that in England it no longer exists, but of course they do not want radicalisms like those that occurred in France. In addition, they have problems with Scottish and Irish nationalisms, so George III, who had already seen the thirteen North American colonies become independent many years before, aspires to strong leadership. These four countries are joined by France, which has returned to the Old Absolutist Regime in the figure of Louis XVIII, brother of Louis XVI.
These countries meet in the Congress of Vienna (1815) and decide to help each other in case of threat. Its objectives, set by Clemens von Metternich (Austrian chancellor and host of the congress) are:
-Return to the political situation and the map of Europe before 1789
-Resolve conflicts through dialogue, that is why they hold numerous congresses (this period of history is also called the Europe of Congresses)
-Fight liberalism and nationalism to the death. At the idea of ​​Tsar Alexander I, a military league called the Holy Alliance was created, with armies from Russia, Prussia and Austria.
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5.2) Liberalism and nationalism
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Liberalism was born from the North American and French anti-absolutist revolutions, and vindicates the enlightened ideals: national sovereignty, constitutional monarchies (limited king power) and individual freedoms (political, expression, association, religious, economic, etc.) for being a anti-absolutist movement, it was considered then revolutionary.
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Nationalism proclaims that the nation must be defended above all else. It was also born from the French Revolution and its defense of the territory against foreign invasion attempts. There are two types of nationalism:
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-Binding: try to include several territories with common characteristics within a single country.
-Separatist: it tries to separate itself from a country to which it belongs, claiming differentiating characteristics.
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In Europe there are several peoples who feel one of the two types: the German-speaking peoples or the Italian-speaking peoples want to unite, respectively, in two countries. On the other hand, Greece and other Balkan peoples want to separate from the Ottoman Empire; Belgium from the Netherlands; Norway, from Denmark. In the Austrian Empire multiple nationalities coexist, the same as in the Russian and the Ottoman. In Spanish America, many countries become independent from Spain, taking advantage of the fact that it was involved in the Coalition Wars.
Faced with this agitated situation, the nineteenth century will be loaded with revolutions.
Kings and politicians dance at the Congress of Vienna, 1815
Klemens von Metternich, Austrian chancellor and host of the Congress of Vienna
6) Revolutionary waves of 1820, 1830 and 1848
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6.1) 1820:
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Enlightened ideas about the freedom of the individual are now encompassed under the umbrella of liberalism. This doctrine drinks from numerous sources (Bill of Rights, United States Constitution, Constitutions of the French Revolution, Napoleonic Civil Code, Spanish Constitution of 1812, etc.) but the common denominator is the desire for political, civil and economic freedom.
The first of these liberal revolutions had its origin in Spain: Colonel Riego, a member of a secret liberal movement, rose in 1820 against the absolutism of Fernando VII, whom he required to swear by the Constitution of 1812. The movement triumphs and the king has to swear to the Constitution, but three years later a French army (the Hundred Thousand Sons of San Luis) enters Spain to defeat the rebels and return the country to absolutism. Other revolutions occurred in:
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Portugal, against the absolutism of John VI
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Naples and Piedmont, where secret societies played an important role, such as that of the Carbonari, which had among its members politicians, intellectuals and the military, and which mixed liberalism with nationalism. Let us remember that Italy was not unified then.
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Russia: a group of military men with liberal ideas, the Decembrists, ask for a moderate government when Tsar Alexander I dies, but his successor, Nicholas I, will also rule in an absolutist way.
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In the field of nationalist revolutions the only triumph occurs: that of Greece. This country, invaded by the Ottoman Empire, has the sympathy of the signatories of the Congress of Vienna: being a Christian people subjected to a Muslim empire encourages Russian and English help. After ten years of war, Greece achieved its independence in 1830.
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6.2) 1830:
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Liberalism grows strong and, gradually, political parties are formed with this ideology. However, they are not mass parties in the modern sense, but meetings of important people. In this new wave, the liberal system will prevail in Spain (after the death of Fernando VII in 1833), France and Portugal.
On the other hand, in Belgium the nationalist revolution broke out and they achieved independence from the Netherlands. In Ireland there is another nationalist revolution against English rule, but it fails.
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The most important revolutionary process took place in France. Carlos X is a fervent supporter of absolutism, and, because of te liberal claimings, decided to cut freedoms. With the Saint-Cloud ordinances (July 1830) freedom of the press is abolished, and the bourgeoisie is excluded from voting. There is a popular uprising and Carlos X is overthrown. He is the last Bourbon to reign in France. The revolutionaries elect as king Louis Philippe of Orleans, a member of the enlightened nobility who had been part of the Jacobin club during the Revolution of 1789. The fact of having ascended to the throne through a revolt earned him the nickname of
'Roi citoyen' (citizen king) or 'Roi des barricades' (king of the barricades) by the absolute monarchs of Europe, who watched with horror as France returned to its old revolutionary days. That same year a liberal constitution was promulgated, inspired by that of 1791. Louis Philippe I will be the last king of France, if we do not count Emperor Napoleon III.
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6.3) 1848
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In this third revolutionary wave, liberal ideals are increasingly entrenched and even broadly democratic reforms will be called for, such as universal male suffrage. This wave affects most European countries. Nationalisms will also have a leading role. This period is also known as the 'Spring of the Peoples'.
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Liberal revolutions:
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France: although Luis Felipe I was a liberal and constitutional king, the economic, financial and political crisis was primed with him and with certain authoritarian turns in his government. François Guizot, the head of government, banned the right of assembly, so people began to hold public banquets to meet and discuss politics. When the government also prohibited these banquets, the republicans rose up and Luis Felipe I had to abdicate, then the liberal republic was proclaimed, one of whose first measures was universal male suffrage.
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Germanic Confederation: it was the state that replaced the Holy Roman Empire after its dissolution during the Napoleonic wars. In the German case, the liberal demands are mixed with the nationalist ones: the people want civil liberties, but also the union of the different principalities and German-speaking regions. The parliament, meeting in Frankfurt, drew up a constitution that was not accepted by the princes, of absolutist roots. This same parliament planned the creation of a German Empire with the King of Prussia as emperor, but he rejected the crown offered by Parliament, considering that only another king could offer him the crown. This is also an absolutist personality trait of monarchs.
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Austria: There was a violent revolution in Vienna that led to the fall of Chancellor Klemens von Metternich, absolutist and anti-liberal, and who was the main promoter of the Congress of Vienna. The new emperor, Francisco José I, will harshly repress the revolutions and will sign a good number of death sentences. The following year, in 1849, he promulgated a very centralist constitution that establishes his power, but the liberal and nationalist outbreaks in the different regions of the empire will constantly shake his reign.
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Italian States: in the Piedmont region (north of the Italian Peninsula) liberal demands will be made by the bourgeoisie and the reigning dynasty, the Savoy, will proclaim a liberal constitution. But the biggest upheavals are going to be nationalist in nature and occur in two aspects: on the one hand, the northern regions, under Austrian rule, want to shake off that yoke, and, on the other, the Italian-speaking peoples begin a unifying movement.
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Nationalist revolutions:
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Austrian Empire: Hungarians, Czechs and Italians from the north star in independence movements.
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German states: unifying movements between the various German-speaking peoples.
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Italian states: as already mentioned, the Italian-speaking regions that belonged to the Austrian Empire want to become independent, and at the same time, there are unifying movements between the Italian-speaking peoples. The nucleus of action is the kingdom of Piedmont.
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In principle, the common armies of the countries participating in the Congress of Vienna are going to drown all these revolutions in blood, but some reforms have been achieved and the ideas are still alive. The Old Regime has its days numbered, and Germans and Italians are determined to shape their respective unified nations. Furthermore, the labor movements are finally organizing themselves. It is precisely in 1848 when the Communist Manifesto, by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, appears published.
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Antonio Gisbert: Fusilamiento de Torrijos y sus compañeros
Satirical caricature of Louis Philippe of Orleans
7. Unifications of Italy and Germany
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Italy and Germany are two young countries: it is at the end of the 19th century when they are configured as nations, in the modern sense of the word, and when they acquire borders similar to the current ones. These are two examples of unifying nationalism, although the struggle between liberals, moderates, absolutists, etc. was also involved in the process. These unification movements are complex, because it is not just about making a country, but about how to do it. In fact, both processes were marked by war.
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7.1) The bases of nationalism
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The common identity is built on a common heritage. Thus, it is necessary that, to start a nationalist movement, there has to be a discourse that emphasizes the common characteristics of the peoples to ignite the unifying desire. This task of preparing the nationalist discourse corresponds to the intellectuals of the bourgeoisie.
The common characteristics can be very varied, but there are always three that are present:
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Language
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The religion
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The commercial bourgeoisie, because it is always easier to sell products in large and united countries.
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But a nationalist movement, in order to consolidate, needs support from a foreign power that can see some interest in the process. It was the case of the France of Napoleon III, which saw the possibility of breaking the European balance of the Congress of Vienna by helping the nationalist outbreaks. Thus he thought that, when the new Italian nation was constituted with his help, it would obtain new territories in compensation.
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7.2) Italian unification (1848-1870)
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The common heritage of the various countries of the Italian Peninsula were the Italian language, the glorious past of the Roman Empire and the Catholic religion. On the other hand, Italian-speaking regions in the north were occupied by Austria, so hatred of the invader also acted as a spur to this movement that was popularly known as Il Risorgimento.
At first, three unification models were proposed:
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Republican and democratic: with the activists Giuseppe Mazzini, who led the revolutionary society Giovine Italia and Giuseppe Garibaldi, revolutionary by vocation, they proposed an openly democratic country with profound social reforms.
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Neo-Gelph: under the direction of the politician and priest Vicenzo Gioberti. They were monarchists and Catholics and wanted Italy to be a confederation of states led by the Pope.
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Piedmontese: based on unifying Italy around the powerful northern state of Piedmont, under the moderate Savoy monarchy. This model would be the winner, guided by King Victor Emmanuel II and the skillful parliamentarian Count of Cavour.
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The definitive unification began in 1859, when, with the support of Napoleon III, the kingdom of Italy was created after taking away from the Austrians their possessions in the north of the peninsula, which were incorporated into Piedmont. So will the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Sicily and Naples) from the south, which had been conquered by Garibaldi, who gave it to Piedmont convinced by Cavour. In exchange for the aid, France gets Nice and Savoy.
In 1866 the annexation of Veneto, in Austrian power, to Piedmont takes place. In this endeavor, the Italians were aided by Prussia, which was then at war against Austria. Finally, in 1870, Rome was annexed, to the great chagrin of Pope Pius IX, as the Papal States disappeared, and Italy was already a nation united from north to south under King Victor Emmanuel II. There will still be areas in the north (Trento, Trieste) under Austrian power that the Italians continue to claim, it is Irredentant Italy, and it will be a new war objective in the First World War.
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7.3) German unification (1864-1871)
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The common heritage is the German language, the long-lived Holy Roman Empire (SIRG), and the Hanseatic League, a trade and military federation that existed in the Baltic area in the Middle Ages.
Francis II, the last emperor of the SIRG, decided to abolish the imperial title in 1806 so that it would not be usurped by Napoleon, and the Empire was renamed the Germanic Confederation, with its capital in Frankfurt and under Austrian control. In Frankfurt there was a parliament that proposed, in 1848, to unify Germany by naming Frederick William IV emperor, at the time King of Prussia, but he categorically rejected the crown offered by Parliament, because in his mentality it was not possible for the people to appoint or remove kings. From here, there are two models of unification:
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Under Austrian control
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Under Prussian control, which will be the one that finally prevails
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The German unification has a fundamental difference with the Italian one: while the latter was carried out from the bottom up, by the people in arms and at the end naming Victor Emmanuel II as constitutional king, the former has an authoritarian character: it is carried out from power without the participation of the people.
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In Prussia, the chancellor was Otto von Bismarck, an intelligent statesman, who cleverly maneuvered so that German unification would take place around Prussia and leave Austria out.
In 1864, Bismarck declared war on Denmark, because in the south of this country there were two dukedoms, Holstein and Schleswig, whose population was mostly of Germanic origin and he wanted to incorporate them into Prussia. Bismarck convinced Austria to cooperate in this war and ultimately divide the duchies, but in 1866, the Danes defeated, Bismarck did not comply with the agreement and Schleswig and Holstein remained Prussian. Austria, humiliated, prepares her revenge.
In 1866, the Austro-Prussian War begins. Bismarck already counted on this and knew that the Prussian army was superior to the Austrian. The war was very brief (it is also known as the Seven Weeks War), Prussia wins and becomes the dominant power in Central Europe, while Austria is left out of the future German unification.
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Now, the devious Bismarck contemplates how in the area of ​​Bavaria, in the south of Germany, the French influence is very great. To avoid possible interference from this country, he plans the war against Napoleon III, but he lacks an excuse. To achieve it, he will not hesitate to use surreptitious tricks, such as manipulating a telegram from the King of Prussia, to get France to declare war on him and appear as the enemy to beat. Between 1870 and 1871 the Franco-Prussian War takes place, with total victory of Prussia. This country annexes the French regions of Alsace and Lorraine and Napoleon III was deposed by his subjects, who proclaimed the republic. He will be the last monarch of France.
In 1871, Wilhelm I of Prussia proclaimed himself Emperor (Kaiser) of unified Germany... at the Palace of Versailles. The humiliation of France is total, and its enmity with Germany will last until the end of World War II, more than 70 years later.
Europe in 1815, after the Congress of Viena
Movie poster from Viva L'Italia, directed by Roberto Rossellini, about the leading figure of Giuseppe Garibaldi
Cavour was a politician and a journalist who supported the unification of Italy taking the northern kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia as nucleus of the new country. He was prime minister of king Victor Emmanuel II.
He was king of Piedmont-Sardinia between 1849 and 1861, and then king of the unified Italy from 1861 until his death in 1878
He was an Italian general and a true civil rights revolutionary. He took the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies from Francis II of Bourbon and handed it over to Victor Emmanuel II.
Cavour was a politician and a journalist who supported the unification of Italy taking the northern kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia as nucleus of the new country. He was prime minister of king Victor Emmanuel II.
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He was chancellor of Prussia and the real architect of the German unification
He competed with Prussia to be the most important state in the new unified Germany, but was eventually defeated and put aside of the German empire.
Wilhem I was crowned as emperor of Germany at the palace of Versailles, on January 8, 1871
He was chancellor of Prussia and the real architect of the German unification